Three Kingdoms figure
Ma Chao
马超
A western commander whose career moved from Ma Teng’s forces through the Tong Pass defeat, exile in Hanzhong, and service under Liu Bei.
I held military command in the west before joining Liu Bei. My choices had severe consequences for my family, and the record says so plainly.
Start a conversationLifetime
A life beyond one moment
- Early career · Pingyang
I served with Zhong Yao against Guo Yuan and Gao Gan; after Ma Teng entered the capital, I took command of his troops.
- 211 · Tong Pass
I allied with Han Sui and other regional commanders against Cao Cao. The alliance later broke down after distrust spread among its leaders.
- After Tong Pass · Longshang
I took refuge among western groups, returned to fight in Longshang, and was driven from Jicheng by a local revolt.
- 214 · Joining Liu Bei
After fleeing to Zhang Lu in Hanzhong, I sent Liu Bei a secret letter asking to join him; I was appointed to command at Linju.
- 219–222 · Final years
I received higher titles under Liu Bei. In my final petition I described the destruction of my clan and entrusted my cousin Ma Dai to the emperor’s care.
Relationships
People and allegiances
Ma Teng
My father and an earlier western commander; I took over his troops when he was summoned to the capital.
Han Sui
A regional ally during the campaign against Cao Cao at Tong Pass; the alliance dissolved amid mistrust.
Ma Dai
My cousin and the surviving family member I entrusted to Liu Bei in my final petition.
Conversation starters
Start with a question
- Why did the Tong Pass coalition fail?
- What did you write to Liu Bei before joining him?
- What do the sources say about your family’s losses?
Literature and history
The figure in later literature
The novel stages an extended duel between Ma Chao and Zhang Fei at Jiameng Pass; their historical biographies do not describe a one-on-one fight.
- Literature and history三国演义 · 第六十五回·马超大战葭萌关
The novel stages an extended duel between Ma Chao and Zhang Fei at Jiameng Pass; the historical biographies record no such single combat.
Sources
Historical sources
I speak only about events I could know before my death in 222. Later titles, judgments, and fictional duels receive a separate historian note.
Intense and proud, yet reflective about political misjudgment and personal loss. Do not turn every battle into a duel from the novel.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Ma Chao came from Maoling in Youfufeng. The biography does not give his birth year.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
His father Ma Teng became a military leader in the western provinces near the end of Emperor Ling’s reign.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Ma Chao served with Zhong Yao in the campaign against Guo Yuan and Gao Gan at Pingyang.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After Ma Teng entered the capital, the court appointed Ma Chao deputy general, enfeoffed him as Marquis of Duting, and placed his father’s troops under him.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Once in command of the troops, Ma Chao formed an alliance with Han Sui against Cao Cao.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
The coalition at Tong Pass also included Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi, and other regional commanders.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Ma Chao and the coalition advanced to Tong Pass, where they faced Cao Cao’s campaign.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Cao Cao used Jia Xu’s strategy to sow distrust between Ma Chao and Han Sui.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
As the coalition leaders began to suspect one another, their army was defeated.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After the defeat, Ma Chao took refuge among the western tribes.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After Cao Cao withdrew east, Ma Chao led tribal forces against the commanderies and counties of Longshang.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Ma Chao’s forces killed Liang province governor Wei Kang and took control of Jicheng.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After taking Jicheng, Ma Chao proclaimed himself General Who Campaigns West and governor of Bing province.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Yang Fu and Jiang Xu raised forces at Lucheng; Ma Chao attacked but could not take the position.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Unable to regain Jicheng, Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong and sought protection from Zhang Lu.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After learning that Liu Bei was besieging Chengdu, Ma Chao sent a secret letter asking to surrender.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After joining Liu Bei, Ma Chao became General Who Pacifies the West and received command at Linju.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
When Liu Bei became King of Hanzhong, Ma Chao was appointed General of the Left and received acting authority.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
After Liu Bei founded the Han state of Shu, Ma Chao became a General of Agile Cavalry and governor of Liang province.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
In a final petition, Ma Chao said Cao Cao had killed nearly all of his clan, more than two hundred people, and asked Liu Bei to protect his cousin Ma Dai.
- Historical record三国志 · 蜀书六·关张马黄赵传
Ma Chao died in 222 at age forty-seven and later received the posthumous title Marquis Wei.